The Innovator’s Dilemma

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Alexander the Great

“There is nothing impossible to him who will try” – Alexander III of Macedon

Greatness comes at a price. This is what we can learn from the biography of Alexander the Great by Jacob Abbott if we only had one short sentence to review the book. There are many biographies written about Alexander the Great and each has a different focus. Jacob Abbott decided to keep it relatively simple, short and with a focus on the character of Alexander. His histories of warfare are mentioned, as well his rise to power, but both in shorter detail. If you want to learn about the personality traits of the greatest conquer in history, this is the book for you.

As a young boy, Alexander was raised in relative luxury. On the one hand, he was the son of Philip III of Macedon, born into incredible wealth. On the other hand, he was trained to physical excellence, did not bother with exclusive food or other displays of wealth. He was trained in warfare and from early on learned how to be a leader. One of the examples is how he tamed his horse Bechepalas. At only 10 years old he read the body language of the horse, figured out that it was distressed by all the attention, his own shadow and the nervous people around him, and then took the necessary actions to calm him down. In this he achieved to tame the horse, a feat that none of the horsemen (all double or more his age) had been able to achieve.

After the tragic death of his father, Alexander became the leader of his people. He did not try and change the way the country was being run. He did not replace the men that had advised his father but embraced the knowledge they possessed and respected their authority. By being humble he quickly gained the trust of his advisors and was embraced as the true leader of his people.

Even with his enemies, he had the same understanding. He was very successful in warfare and conquered many countries. In concurring a city he would always offer the opportunity for the people to join him before he would crash down upon them. Even when a military confrontation had preceded, people who openly supported him were spared from slavery, as where religious ministers and poets. When capturing the family of one of his greatest enemies (Darius), he left them to live on in their wealth. Overlooking the share brutality of his force (Alexander very probably is responsible for the most murders in the history of mankind) there was a sense of justice to his actions.

Justice was complemented by the sheer focus and determination he possessed. His goal was to rule the known world (to which he succeeded with grace). In effecting this goal he stuck to one distinct military configuration, the phalanx. In the phalanx the men walked side to side, carrying a shield on the left, and a long spear on the right. In that time this mass of people became impenetrable as the shields could be used to become one massive unit.  Both his focus in battle and in strategy can be compared to the hedgehog concept as proposed by Jim Collins in Good to Great. The hedgehog concept states that a company (or person) is best not to have many different goals, tactics and strategies, but to focus on one thing only. By laying a focus on one thing only, a person is able to excel and become the best, as did Alexander in conquering the world by using the phalanx.

Things start going downhill after the first invasion of Asia Minor. He rejects the offer made by Darius to receive a significant amount of land, stating that he (as the King of Asia) is the only one to redistribute land. Then he undertook the siege to capture Tyra, but at the end of the prolonged battle ended up killing all men and selling women and children into slavery. After concurring Egypt he had himself declared ‘Master of the Universe’, there was nothing left of the prior humility.

Humility was also gone in his own appearance. First despising the luxurious displays of the Persian wealthy, he himself became more and more acquainted with wearing this kind of clothing. Moderation was taken over by excessive drinking and might have even been the cause of the burning of Xerxes palace. This in the end also was the cause of his own death, dying roughly two weeks after two nights of heavy drinking and a subsequent fever.

Alexander the Great did not build his empire on the notion to last forever. Much of the affairs of the empire were dependent on him. This does not mean that he personally oversaw the many details of his ruling, but that his character was what build it all. With him gone the empire soon broke up into many pieces and there was no one to follow in his footsteps. Although Alexander the Great started with a perfect character, the power he attained got to him and eventually meant the downfall of him and his empire.

Remember upon the conduct of each depends the fate of all – Alexander III of Macedon

At the end of his biography of Alexander the Great, Job Abbott ponders one very significant question: What if only Alexander only had used his awesome powers for good? In his lifetime many people prospered, but an even greater number suffered and died in consequence of his ever-expanding empire. Reading about the life of Alexander the Great is very interesting and leaves you wondering how to maintain a good character when it matters. It may not be the best book to consider when thinking about leadership or character, but is definitively one that you should read when convenient.

Hannibal

“I will either find a way, or make one.” – Hannibal

Lessons Learnt: War is the opposite of commerce. Reckless ambition will get you somewhere, but in the end that somewhere will be under the ground. History is written by the victors.

Hannibal is one of the most remembered leaders of history. Every history textbook (at least in Europe) writes about his travels through the Alps, his attack of Italy (then the Roman Empire) and his subsequent demise. What many forget is the historical impact that Hannibal has had on the world, what the consequences of his battles have done for Italy, but even more for the Carthaginian empire (I bet you haven’t even heard of it). Jacob Abbott takes us, once again, on a journey through history and introduces Hannibal: Maker of History.

Hannibal Barca, son of Hamilcar Barca, was a brilliant strategist. As soon as he became of age he rose in rank within the army of Carthage and become one of its greatest generals. Carthage itself is an ancient empire that occupied the other side of the Mediterranean Sea from the Roman Empire. It lay in parts of countries now called Spain, Morocco, Liberia and Algeria. It was known for its commerce and found its origin from Tyre, the fortress city that almost successfully fought of Alexander the Great.

If Carthage was so known for its commerce, why then would Hannibal try and subdue the Romans? This hatred for the Romans originated from the first Punic War. In this 24 year war, the Romans almost completely defeated the Carthaginians and became the seed for Hannibal’s anger. In the following decades, he would go on to invade Italy (travelling via Spain and France) and almost crush the Romans.

Hannibal was a master of tactics. Even before I discuss his tactics in war, I would like to point out his savviness in politics. When opposed by Hanno for taking the command of the army he used his strength, youth and vigour to his advantage. He knew that great stories and promises do well and that in the end, even the best arguments can lose from passion (as illustrated by Cleopatra a small 200 years later).

In war, he knew even better what to do. When marching through part of nowadays France, he won the hearts of the local governments by making clear that he was only passing through and had no intention of hurting them. In the Alps, he received guidance from the locals and led his troops (including elephants) up into the mountains. And when he finally traversed the Alps, before meeting the Romans, showed his men the following. He gathered a few soldiers he had captured from traitorous mountaineers and let them fight one-on-one. He promised the victor freedom and kept to his word. After that, he told his men: We are these soldiers, the men that have to fight for victory. But it will be easy, we are brave and strong men who will face the weaker forces of Scipio, we will be the victors.

“I am not carrying on a war of extermination against the Romans. I am contending for honor and empire. My ancestors yielded to Roman valor. I am endeavoring that others, in their turn, will be obliged to yield to my good fortune, and my valor.“ – Hannibal

In subsequent battles, Hannibal conquered most of Italy but never succeeded to take Rome. In the battle of Cannæ, he won a battle of 50.000 versus 80.000 men by faking a half surrender and later attacking the Romans in the back. In the end, he was not defeated because his army was not strong enough (most of the time he had won with smaller armies, but better tactics). In the end, he lost the war because he faced a better strategist than himself, Scipio – the son of one he faced in the very beginning after crossing the Alps. After 17 years of war, Hannibal was defeated, the second Punic war ended, and Carthage was back to the way it was.

But the flame that Hannibal ignited stayed lid for 52 years, after which the third (and final) Punic War broke out. The Carthaginians lose the war and are to surrender. The Romans enforce their, very harsh, conditions for peace by taking the sons of the most prominent families of Carthage. The Carthaginians first resist but then comply with the demands. Scipio, however, had not made all his demands, he wanted to destroy Carthage itself. Again emotions win from reason and when the Carthaginians have already surrendered their weapons and are at a very strong disadvantage, they start to fight back. Every brick is turned into a stone to throw, hairs are bundled to make strings for bows, and the Carthaginians fight bravely for their city.

Alas, in the end, it goes down in flames. The conquests of Hannibal result in the downfall of the Carthaginian Empire. As was the case with Alexander the Great, Hannibal was responsible for many deaths, as much that in each Roman family a brother or nephew was most likely to have died because of him. In the end, it has costed not only lives, but an entire empire to perish from his actions. In yet another great book by Jacob Abbott the whole scene, spanning more than 200 years is described in detail. It provides enough stories to give a detailed look into the specific history, and at the same time describes the era and leaves enough room for philosophical reflections to which I am prone.

Cleopatra

“I will not be triumphed over.”  – Cleopatra

Lessons learnt: Lust and vice can corrupt great leaders and topple large empires. Normal life can continue relatively peaceful in spite of turmoil in royal families.

Cleopatra comes from a family that has left its mark by engaging in crime and vice. Many, or maybe all, of her predecessors engaged in acts such as using the wealth of the nation for themselves, adultery and incest. For a very long time, Egypt had Alexandria as its capital, thanking its origin to Alexander the Great. Back in ancient times (but also now), Egypt was relatively isolated from the rest of the world. Ptolemy was the first ruler of Egypt after the death of Alexander the Great and started a long reign of prosperous and fertile Egypt, but filled with intrigues and vice. Jacob Abbott’s Cleopatra describes in detail this reign, with a detailed description of Cleopatra’s intrigues, seductions and eventual downfall.

Cleopatra as a young woman already showed the ambition and cunning required for an empress. When her father Ptolemy was reaching the end of his life, he, however, was more compelled to let a son be the emperor than his oldest child, Cleopatra. This dilemma he solved in the way many of his ancestors had done, he married Cleopatra to Ptolemy (his son). The true execution of the rule over Egypt he left to Pothinus (a eunuch), Cleopatra and Ptolemy were only 18 and 10 years of age at the time. In the following years, Cleopatra grew stronger but was exiled by a conspiracy between Ptolemy (her husband) and Pothinus over a struggle for power. She would not be gone for long.

In Syria (a very central country in much of the history of the world) she raised an army in order to fight her way back to rule. A battle never occurred because Ceasar won the civil war that had been raging in the Roman empire and by coincidence ended up in Alexandria. In one of her cunning moves she smuggled herself into Alexandria, Caesar had tried to pursue Pompey there, where she presented her case to Caesar. Caesar was taken back by her charm and daring moves and immediately resolved to get her to consolidate with her brother.

“My honour was not yielded, but conquered merely.” – Cleopatra

The subsequent intrigues are too many to mention in this summary. They constitute Ceasar abandoning his duties as ruler of the Roman empire by staying in Alexandria for a great many years. Cleopatra bears multiple children who are presumed to be from Ceasar, a man who has a wife back in Rome. They together live in the most luxurious ways possible at that time and enjoy each others company. After the assassination of Ceasar, Cleopatra succeeds in seducing the next ruler of the Roman empire, Anthony. Their love leads to more adultery, vice and children. In the end, Antony is defeated by opposing forces in the Roman empire and dies in Alexandria. Not much later Cleopatra is taken prisoner and eventually dies from poison she inflicts on herself.

Cleopatra by Jacob Abbott is a tragic story, for all the power and wealth available to many of the main antagonists, they let their urges and needs to take control instead of reason. Where Ceasar and Anthony were in great positions to rule the Roman empire without much opposition, they both chose to perish in Egypt. If the history of Cleopatra shows anything, it is that even the greatest of man can fall by the touch of a woman. Although Cleopatra is a rather long read, it is worth it if you are interested in the history of Egypt and the fallibility of mankind.

I Love You But

Love can be a though thing sometimes. It can give you the highest highs and the lowest lows. In an age where people assume that love is this big romance, in which limerence (the beginning stage of love) is thought of to last forever I Love You But I’m Not In Low With You (ILYB) is an eye-opener to many. With 25 years of experience in marital counselling, Andrew Marshall has seen it all. In ILYB he offers a theoretical insight into the stages of love, the problems that can arise and exercises you (and your partner) can take to find each other again. This is described in the seven steps to putting the passion back into your relationship.

Step one is very straightforward, and yet also so profound. Marshall explains what the six stages of a relationship are and that they all have their different characteristics. All of them are encompassed by our conception of love, but each in its different way. The second step might surprise many people, it is about arguing. Marshall states that arguing has gotten a bad reputation in the last decades, but that when you apply it correctly, and truly listen to your significant other, conflicts can solve most of your relationship problems. If done correctly, arguments can help see each others perspective and solve underlying conflicts. The other steps are; 3) target, 4) play, 5) take responsibility, 6) giving, and 7) learning.

At the end of every chapter are some exercises you (and your partner) can do. This is an effective way in which Marshall has combined the theoretical part with the practical application of his seven steps. An example is the exercise, self-diagnosis: what else could be lurking behind your ILYB? In this exercise you are presented with 25 questions that target all aspects of your life that may be an underlying problem that is causing you to instigate the ILYB conversation, without this actually being the cause. After the long list of questions are also explanations why each question is asked and what insights it can give, something very useful for people who have enough to cope with and can use some understanding.

Not only does ILYB give you an insight in the steps to mending your relationship, it also provides information on dealing with the actual conversation, a trail-separation, a break-up, and how to live fully again. Marshall in this way covers all topics that you may encounter when dealing with an ILYB situation. For other problems he has also written books which include; The Single Trap (for chronic singles), How Can I Ever Trust You Again? (adultery), Are You Right For Me? (commitment), and Learn To Love Yourself Enough (self-esteem). This clearly shows that Marshall is an expert on the topic of love and has done extensive research into developing the right ways to building a better relationship.

Although the book is an easy (language wise) book to read, with difficult (topic wise) issues being discussed, it is up to the reader to take action. It is up to him or her to confront the other party with the lessons that can be drawn from the book, and to instigate the road to recovery. Love can be both a great joy and a source of great misery, this book shows you that the former is just around the corner. The book receives a 4 out of 6 rating, the reason it has not got a higher rating is because it is hoped that any haste is not needed. It also does not receive a lower rating because although your relationship is not in a crisis, this book allows you to explore the 6 stages of love, and 7 steps to putting back (or getting even more) passion in your love life!

Super Freakonomics

Freakonomics & Super Freakonomics by Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner takes our normal life, look at it in a strange way, and then make us realise that not everything is so normal. Combining statistics (sometimes this can be fun), economics and the powers of deduction the books make you look at the world in a new way.

Are you more afraid of sharks or elephants? You have probably said the former, but statistics state that the latter is actually more dangerous. How? You are probably asking, well it is all about perception. When someone is attacked by a shark the whole media circus arrives and you are sure to know that it has happened. But when an elephant attacks a person this is mostly not noted in the media, and by the way, are elephants not really cute (e.g. Dumbo). Now onto the real numbers, on average 5.9 people die a year from shark attacks, about 200 die from shark attacks (that is more than 30 times as much!).

This example is only one of the many featured in both books. Chapters bear titles like: “Why should suicide bombers buy life insurance?” and “The role legalized abortion has played in reducing crime, contrasted with the policies and downfall of Romanian dictator Nicolae Ceauşescu”. In their research, the authors come across all kinds of places in the world. Investigating the role of pimps and hookers (they are better off with pimps) takes them to lunch with prostitutes on their Saturday morning. And explore the topic of why removing foreskin could help reduce the risk of HIV transmission.

A topic of special interest for parents is the chapter on the effect parenting has on their children. When looking at other factors like economic and social status of the neighbourhood the effect of parenting almost completely disappears. The amount of books you have in your house is a good predictor of the reading proficiency of your child, have read them does not add anything to the predictive value. Does this mean that you as a parent have nothing to add? Of course not, you are of great influence on which neighbourhood you decide to live in, how many books you buy and how you raise your children. But sometimes there are things at play you do not think of instantly.

Steven Levitt and Stephen Dubner are one rogue economist and one extraordinary writer on the loose. Since 2003 they have been working together and have not only produced two most interesting books but have built a whole Freakonomics empire including podcasts and a regular blog. Their two books are easy to read and perfect conversation makers, they should be the next two on your list.

Think Like a Freak

“The key to learning is feedback. It is nearly impossible to learn anything without it.”  – Steven D. Levitt

Lessons learnt: Sometimes say “I don’t know”. Question if you are asking the right question. Stop once every while… just to think.

After the success of Freakonomics and Super Freakonomics, Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner are back for their third book. In Think Like a Freak, they take a meta-look at how to think, how we conceive the world around us, and how to do a better job at this. Still loaded with stories, this book takes a more theoretical approach than the last two. For anyone who is questioning how to think like a freak (or just how to think smarter) this is your book. But also if you are just here for the great examples, some applied psychology or want to know what King Solomon and David Lee Roth have in common, be sure to give this book a try.

In the very first chapter, the authors explain how they have written (Super) Freakonomics. They had four main ideas. Four ideas that may sound very simple, but ideas that many of us neglect to consider (ever):

1. Incentives are the cornerstone of modern life
2. Knowing what to measure, and how to measure it, can make a complicated world less so
3. The conventional wisdom is often wrong
4. Correlation does not equal causality

On a practical level, they do the following things. 1) Use data, it is much better than gut feelings (but see Blink). 2) Admit that you do not know… but that you can go and find it out. 3) Ask the right question… and then do step 2 again. In relation to questions, they propose us to ask small questions. You can answer these with much more precision, there are less intervening/complicating factors, and it is much easier to understand. Then when you are asking the question, do not be afraid to ask about something obvious – maybe you will find out that the real answer is not that obvious after all.

Thinking like a freak alas, also involves some basic (behavioural) economic understanding. This is that people are driven by incentives. Incentives can be money, but often do not need to be. An incentive is something that matters to a person, so go ahead and place yourself in their shoes and think what incentive would motivate them. Sometimes these incentives are not what we say they are (e.g. I care about global warming and will turn the heat down; declared preference), but turn out to be something else (e.g. I want to be a better energy saver than my neighbours; revealed preference). The authors state that it is crucial to first think about what the revealed preference is. Only then can you use incentives to your advantage.

“Would a diet high in omega-3 lead to world peace?” -Steven D. Levitt

The last two chapters discuss 1) persuasion and 2) the upside of quitting. Both take on interesting view on the respective subjects and give another great illustration of how a freak thinks. After reading the book you may wonder where the time has gone. Although you probably have learned a lot, it feels nothing like a boring textbook. In their third book, Steven D. Levitt and Stephen J. Dubner have succeeded in writing another thought-provoking classic. Thinking Like a Freak may not be for everyone, but if anything has caught your attention, be sure to read it when convenient!

Just Babies

“We can create the environments that can transform an only partially moral baby into a very moral adult” – Paul Bloom

Lessons learnt: Morality is innate. Morality needs to be shaped, strengthened and expanded by your experiences. Put yourself in other people’s shoes to expand your moral circle.

Just Babies

Thomas Jefferson once wrote to a friend “The moral sense, or conscience is as much part of man as his leg or arm. It is given to all human beings, in a stronger or weaker degree, as a force of members is given them to a greater or lesser degree.” Now, more than 200 years later, Paul Bloom confirms this earlier insight in his brilliant book Just Babies: The Origin of Good and Evil.

Just Babies follows the path laid by Predictably Irrational and Thinking, Fast and Slow, by combining fundamental research with understandable examples. The book also relies on cutting-edge discoveries and brain scanning techniques, as well as philosophical ideas pondered by Adam Smith, Sigmund Freud and Thomas Jefferson. In the end, it tries to answer the question: Where does morality come from?

Paul Bloom takes a strong stance about this at the beginning of the book: morality is innate. Babies are born with a feeling for right and wrong, they know the basics without having to learn them. But, and this is a big but, they do need training, feedback and exercise to further develop their moral senses. Let’s find out how!

Moral Insights and Moral Studies

First, what is morality? Morality is concerned with right and wrong (judgemental elements), and with generosity, humanity, kindness, compassion and friendship (altruistic elements). Morality is partially universal (e.g. to love thy neighbours) and partially cultural (e.g. whether to bury or burn the deceased). In essence, morality is the appreciation of the difference between right and wrong.

So how do you figure out why a person is moral? One way of doing this is by studying people that are clearly amoral, psychopaths for instance. Interviews with them have established that they can empathise with another person (and are actually master manipulators). But when they were asked about the suffering of their victims, all of them could not get their minds around the problem, they lacked compassion.

Research nowadays has made it possible to peak into the human brain. This has allowed us to find the mechanisms that are responsible for many of moralities underlying principles (e.g. compassion). One way this works is via mirror neurons. These are neurons that light up in your brain when you see someone experiencing something, as they would do if you engaged in it. In psychopaths, they didn’t fire when they saw people who experienced fear.

Paul Bloom states that compassion and empathy are two different mechanisms of morality. Both can exist independently of each other and without the one or the other you can still be a moral person. But, without caring for other people there would be no morality.

Other ways of studying the morality of mankind are through experiments. On the subjects of fairness, status and punishment many experimental games have been played. These games often offer participants the choice of sharing, giving away or taking away money (or coins) from other players. In most variations, it’s best for the whole group to work together, but best for the individual to have everyone cooperate and then sneakily take away all of the gains.

Through games like this and other games and experiments more suitable for babies, we can study the development of morality. Where babies at a very young age already get upset by seeing injustice done (e.g. not dividing candy appropriately), only at a later age do they see that they themselves also have to adhere to these rules. So without going through the book word for word, it suffices to say that morality is both innate and learned.

“Morality is not the doctrine of how we may make ourselves happy, but how we may make ourselves worthy of happiness.” – Immanuel Kant

How to be Good

Many seemingly altruistic (moral) acts actually serve a self-interested purpose. But whilst the rich man gives away money, he also improves his standing in society. And the volunteer at the homeless shelter truly helps but also gets renewed energy from the people he’s helping.

At the same time, there are people who give away their money without letting others know. People even sacrifice their lives to defend their loved ones. Although our morality is not innately perfect, we can make it better, we can enhance our morality.

One way to do this is to convert thoughtful moral behaviour into mindless habits. Intertwine your moral virtues into your daily life. For instance, make it a habit to always help people who are in need. Or if you are donating, make it an automated payment. Or say to yourself, every day I’m going to make the world a little better.

Another way to enhance your morality is to increase your moral circle. This is the circle, or range of people, you care (or even know) about. You can make this circle larger by meeting new people (i.e. via a meetup group). Another way is to read books that offer another perspective on life/politics/religion (fiction or non-fiction). And a third way to become more moral is to reason once every while, just to sit and think…

The Alliance

“Our goal is to provide a framework for moving from a transactional to a relational approach.” – Reid Hoffman

Lessons learnt: Employer & employee goals can be aligned, but you have to be very clear about it.

Work relations have changed dramatically over the past few decades. Where once a person was likely (and expected) to work at one company for his whole life, nowadays no-one considers you crazy if you’ve worked at 3 employers in the past 10 years. In The Alliance Reid Hoffman, Ben Casnocha and Chris Yeh present a framework on how to consider this new paradigm. In less than 200 pages they introduce The Alliance, what it means for different stakeholders and how to apply the framework in a different situation.

The problem that The Alliance tries to solve is the budged relationship between an employer and employee. The authors state that from the start the conversation between the two parties is dishonest. The employer expects an employee to be loyal to them forever, but at the same time will be most likely to lay off the new employees when things don’t go their way. In short, the authors want to restore trust.

Employers and employees should make an alliance and set synergetic goals for a set period of time – or in their lingo; Tours of Duty. Because of the finite term of the tour of duty both parties have a crisp focus. It also faces the reality that an employee might leave afterwards. Because of this, it’s up to the employer to convince the employee to stay and be challenged once again at his present company.

In The Alliance we are met with three kinds of tours of duty:

1. Rotational – not personalized and highly interchangeable
2. Transformational – personalized for a specific mission
3. Foundational – a permanent relationship

All are explained in their own right. Each one is for a different stage in a person’s career and picking a tour should be done with great care. And each additional tour of duty should further align the core mission and values of the employer and employee.

“Tours of duty have to be systematic, consistent, and transparent.” – Reid Hoffman

The latter few chapters discuss how you can best implement tours of duty in your own company. They also stress the importance of networking and how your relationship doesn’t (have to) end when an employee leaves a company. The book is easy to read and chock full of information, so please read it when you have the time.